Folic Acid Supplementation may Minimize the Risk of Three of the Biggest Circulatory Diseases

November 23, 2002

A study, a so called meta analysis of 92 studies involving 20,669 patients, was published in the British Medical Journal (BMJ) the 23 November 2002.

Earlier studies have found a connection with a too high value of the substance Homocysteine in the body with coronary diseases like blood clots in the heart, blood clots in the legs, and in the brain.

Homocysteine is increased by deficiency of several vitamin Bs, especially vitamin B12, vitamin B6 and folic acid, and by a common genetic defect that reduces the activity of an enzyme in the folic acid metabolism. The result of this defect is a condition called “functional vitamin B deficiency”, which means a need for greater intake of folic acid in the exposed ones.

Increased homocysteine – no matter the cause – has shown to be significantly related to the three following diseases. By a reduction in the homocysteine of the blood of 3 mikromol/l it was possible to decrease the incidents of heart diseases with 16%. Deep venetrombose, with or without lung emboli, with 25%. The reduction in the frequens of blood cloths in the brain (strokes) was 24%.

The authors conclude:
That by reducing the homocysteine concentration with 3 mikromol/l (which alone can be obtained by increasing the folic acid intake, editor) the risk of heart disease can be reduced with 16%, the risk of deep venetrombose with 25%, and the risk of stroke with 24%.

By: Per Tork Larsen, DSOM

Reference:
British Medical Journal; Nov, 2002.

www.bmj.com
www.iom.dk

Children with Asthma are Helped by Antioxidants

May 30, 2002

A new study presented in the scientific magazine of the American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine shows that antioxidants like Vitamin C and E may protect the lungs of asthmatic children so that they are not harmed by ozone air pollution in the big cities.

158 asthmatic children from the very polluted Mexico City either got a supplement of antioxidants or a control supplement without active substances.

Nobody knew who got what before the code was broken at the end of the study one and a half year later.

The daily supplement given to the children was 50mg Vitamin E and 250mg Vitamin C. In the antioxidant group the children’s lung function was not reduced in those periods of time, where the city was heavily ozone polluted. On the contrary, the lung function of the children who got control tablets was worsened.

The scientists said, that the antioxidants especially seemed to help children with moderate or severe asthma. This points towards that children with advanced asthma are especially vulnerable to ozone, because thay have a weak antioxidant defence i their lungs.

Some asthmatics get severe symptoms, when they breathe in the air borne irritants like ozone found in big cities, coming from cars, power plants and industries.

Also studies made with healthy bikers have shown that antioxidants may reduce the harmfull effects of ozone pollution on lung function.

The scientists behind this study conclude, that asthmatic children in areas with air pollution should have more Vitamin C and E to protect their lungs.

The Vitality Council agrees with this conclusion.
Per Tork Larsen, DSOM


Reference:

American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine 2002;166: 703-70

ajrccm.atsjournals.org/cgi/content/full/166/5/703
www.iom.dk

DNA damage from micronutrient deficiencies is likely to be a major cause of cancer

Mutation Research 475 (2001) 7–20
Review
Bruce N. Ames
University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720-3202, USA
Received 11 May 2000;
received in revised form 10 August 2000;
accepted 8 November 2000

Abstract

A deficiency of any of the micronutrients: folic acid, Vitamin B12, Vitamin B6, niacin, Vitamin C, Vitamin E, iron, or zinc, mimics radiation in damaging DNA by causing single- and double-strand breaks, oxidative lesions, or both. For example, the percentage of the US population that has a low intake (<50% of the RDA) for each of these eight micronutrients ranges from 2 to >20%.

A level of folate deficiency causing chromosome breaks was present in approximately 10% of the US population, and in a much higher percentage of the poor. Folate deficiency causes extensive incorporation of uracil into human DNA (4 million/cell), leading to chromosomal breaks. This mechanism is the likely cause of the increased colon cancer risk associated with low folate intake. Some evidence, and mechanistic considerations, suggest that Vitamin B12 (14% US elderly) and B6 (10% of US) deficiencies also cause high uracil and chromosome breaks.

Micronutrient deficiency may explain, in good part, why the quarter of the population that eats the fewest fruits and vegetables (five portions a day is advised) has about double the cancer rate for most types of cancer when compared to the quarter with the highest intake.

For example, 80% of American children and adolescents and 68% of adults do not eat five portions a day. Common micronutrient deficiencies are likely to damage DNA by the same mechanism as radiation and many chemicals, appear to be orders of magnitude more important, and should be compared for perspective. Remedying micronutrient deficiencies should lead to a major improvement in health and an increase in longevity at low cost.

1. Introduction
Approximately 40 micronutrients (the vitamins, essential minerals and other compounds required in small amounts for normal metabolism) are required in the human diet [1]. For each micronutrient, metabolic harmony requires an optimal intake (i.e. to give maximal life span); deficiency distorts metabolism in numerous and complicated ways many of which may lead to DNA damage.

The recommended dietary allowance (RDA) [2–4] of a micronutrient is mainly based on information on acute effects, because the optimum amount for long term health is generally not known. For many micronutrients, a sizable percentage of the population is deficient relative to the current RDA [5]. Remedying these deficiencies, which can be done at low cost, is likely to lead to a major improvement in health and an increase in longevity.

The optimum intake of a micronutrient can vary with age and genetic constitution, state of well being, and be influenced by other aspects of diet. Determining these optima, and remedying deficiencies, and in some cases excesses, will be a major public health project for the coming decades.

Long term health is also influenced by many other aspects of diet. Though this paper uses most examples from the US, the situation seems similar in many other countries. Micronutrient deficiency can mimic radiation (or chemicals) in damaging DNA by causing single-and double-strand breaks, or oxidative lesions, or both.

Chromosomal aberrations such as double strand breaks are a strong predictive factor for human cancer [6]. Those micronutrients whose deficiency mimics radiation are folic acid, B12, B6, niacin, C, E, iron, and zinc, with the laboratory evidence ranging from likely to compelling.

The percentage of the US population, for example, that is deficient (<50% of the RDA) for each of these eight micronutrients ranges from 2 to >20%, and may comprise in toto a considerable percentage of the US population (Table 1).

We have used <50% of the US RDA as a measure of low intake because these numbers are available [5]. However, the level of each micronutrient that minimizes DNA damage remains to be determined. Micronutrient deficiency is a plausible explanation for the strong epidemiological evidence that shows an association between low consumption of fruits and vegetables and cancer at most sites.

2. Dietary fruits and vegetables and cancer prevention
Greater consumption of fruits and vegetables is associated with a lower risk of degenerative diseases including cancer, cardiovascular disease, cataracts, and brain dysfunction [7].

More than 200 studies in the epidemiological literature have been reviewed and show, with great consistency, an association between low consumption of fruits and vegetables and the incidence of cancer [8–10]. The quarter of the population with the lowest dietary intake of fruits and vegetables has roughly twice the cancer rate for most types of cancer (lung, larynx, oral cavity, esophagus, stomach, colon and rectum, bladder, pancreas, cervix, and ovary [8] when compared to the quarter with the highest intake.

In a different survey, the lowest quartile of adults consumed 2.7 portions or less and the highest quartile 5.6 portions or more (Krebs–Smith, personal communication). These observations are consistent with data on the Seventh Day Adventists, who are non-smokers and mostly vegetarians, and have about half the cancer mortality rate and a longer life span, than the average American [11].

About 80% of American children and adolescents [12]: and 68% of adults [13] did not meet the intake recommended by the National Cancer Institute and the National Research Council: five servings of fruits and vegetables per day. Publicity about hundreds of minor hypothetical risks, such as that from pesticide residues in the diet [14], has contributed to a lack of perspective on disease prevention.

Half of Americans do not list fruit and vegetable consumption as a protective factor against cancer [15] and two-thirds think that for good health only two servings per day need to be consumed [16]. Fruit and vegetable consumption is lowest among the poor, for example, African-Americans in the US [13,17].

Many components of fruits and vegetables may be responsible for their protective effect; such as micronutrients, plant phenolics, and fiber. This paper argues that inadequate intake of many micronutrients, such as folic acid, Vitamin C and B6 contributes to DNA damage, cancer, and degenerative disease.

A major part of the protective effect of fruits and vegetables may be due to their micronutrient content. In addition, dietary deficiencies of micronutrients whose sources are not primarily fruits and vegetables, such as zinc, iron, niacin, Vitamin E, and Vitamin B12, also appear to contribute to DNA damage and are also common in the US population. Other micronutrients are likely to be added to this list in the coming years.

3. Folic acid
Folate deficiency, a common vitamin deficiency in people who eat few fruits and vegetables, causes chromosome breaks in human genes [18]. Approximately, 10% of the US population [19,20] are deficient at the level causing chromosome breaks in humans. In two small studies of low income (mainly African-American) elderly [21] and adolescents [22] done nearly 20 years ago about half had a folate deficiency at this level, though the issue should be reexamined.

(B.N. Ames / Mutation Research 475 (2001) 7–20 9, 10 / B.N. Ames / Mutation Research 475 (2001) 7–20)

The mechanism of chromosome breaks has now been shown to be deficient methylation of uracil to thymine, and subsequent incorporation of uracil into human DNA (4 million/cell) [18]. Uracil in DNA is excised by a repair glycosylase with the formation of a transient single-strand break in the DNA; two opposing single-strand breaks cause a double-strand chromosome break, which is difficult to repair. Both high DNA uracil levels and chromosome breaks in humans are reversed by folate administration [18]. Folate supplementation above the RDA minimized chromosome breakage in an Australian study [23].

Folate deficiency has been associated with increased risk of colon cancer [24,25], and the 15 year use of a multivitamin supplement containing folate lowered colon cancer risk by about 75% [26]. Folate and B12 deficiencies are associated with cognitive defects in humans [18] and neurotoxicity in children is caused by methotrexate, which lowers folate pools if folate is not replenished [27]. Chromosome breaks could contribute to the increased risk of cancer, and possibly cognitive defects, associated with folate deficiency in humans [18].

Folate deficiency causes increased homocysteine accumulation, which has been associated with neural tube defects in the fetus and an estimated 10% of US heart disease, both of which could be eliminated by folate supplements, food fortification, or better diets [28–34]. Homocysteine damages endothelial cells in culture and is a risk factor for arterial endothelial dysfunction in humans [35].

A polymorphism (a common, alternate, form of a gene) in the gene for methylene-tetrahydrofolate (THF) reductase, the enzyme responsible for reducing methylene-THF to methyl-THF, results in homozygotes having a decreased activity and a two-fold increase in plasma homocysteine.

Homozygotes, 5–25% of individuals depending on the ethnicity [36,37], have an increased risk of heart disease [31], stroke [29,38], and neural tube defects [37,39]. This polymorphism increases the methylene-THF pool at the expense of the methyl-THF pool, resulting in decreased DNA uracil levels and increased serum homocysteine.

The potential role in human carcinogenesis of uracil misincorporation is supported by two studies which show a two- to four-fold lower risk of colon cancer for individuals who are homozygous for the mutant alleles of methylene-THF reductase compared to controls [33,40]. Acute lymphocytic leukemia has been associated with the polymorphism which suggests folate deficiency as a major cause [41,42].

Folates were measured in seminal plasma from smokers and nonsmokers, and evaluated relationships between seminal plasma folates and both folate status and semen quality measures [43]. Total seminal plasma folate concentrations were higher than blood plasma folate. Total and 5-methyltetrahydrofolate concentrations correlated significantly with blood plasma folate and homocysteine concentrations. Seminal plasma non-methyltetrahydrofolates correlated significantly with sperm density and total sperm count suggesting importance for male reproductive function, and a likely mechanism of DNA damage as uracil incorporation into sperm DNA.

4. Vitamin B12
The main dietary source of B12 is meat. About 4% of the US population consumes below half of the RDA of Vitamin B12 [5]. About 14% of elderly Americans and about 24% of elderly Dutch have mild B12 deficiency, in part accountable by the Americans taking more vitamin supplements [44].

Vitamin B12 would be expected to cause chromosome breaks by the same mechanism as folate deficiency. Both B12 and methyl-THF are required for the methylation of homocysteine to methionine. If either folate or B12 is deficient, then homocysteine, a major risk factor for heart disease [29,30], accumulates.

When B12 is deficient, then tetrahydrofolate is trapped as methyl-THF; the methylene-THF pool, which is required for methylation of dUMP to dTMP, is consequently diminished. Therefore, B12 deficiency, like folate deficiency, should cause uracil to accumulate in DNA, and there is accumulating evidence for this (Ingersoll et al., unpublished; [45]). The two deficiencies may act synergistically.

In a study of healthy Australian elderly men [23], or young adults [46], increased chromosome breakage was associated with either low intakes of folate, or B12, or with elevated levels of homocysteine [47]. The B12 supplementation above the RDA was necessary to minimize chromosome breakage [46,47]. The B12 deficiency is known to cause neuropathy due to demyelination and loss of peripheral neurons (reviewed in [18]).

(B.N. Ames / Mutation Research 475 (2001) 7–20 11)

5. Vitamin B6
About 10% of the US population consumes less than half of the RDA (1.6 mg/day) of Vitamin B6 [5]. Vitamin B6 deficiency causes a decrease in the enzyme activity of serine hydroxymethyl transferase, the only source of the methylene group for methylene-THF [48]. If the methylene-THF pool is decreased in B6-deficiency, then uracil incorporation, with associated chromosome breaks, would be expected, and evidence for this has been found in women at a level of 32 nmol/l of Vitamin B6 in blood (0.5 mg/day intake) that were part of a previous intervention study ([49]; Ingersoll et al., unpublished).

In a case-control study of diet and cancer, Vitamin B6 intake was inversely associated with prostate cancer [50]. Vitamin B6 deficiency appears to contribute to heart disease and supplementation reduces risk [51]; levels above the RDA may be necessary to minimize risk [32].

A level of Vitamin B6 in blood below 23 nmol/l is a risk factor for stroke and atherosclerosis [52]. Diets low in Vitamin B6 are associated with brain dysfunction in children and adults [53]. Good sources of Vitamin B6 are whole grain bread and cereal, liver, bananas and green beans. A major source in the US is fortified breakfast cereal and multivitamins.

6. Vitamin C
About 15% of the population consumes less than half the RDA (60 mg/day) of ascorbate [5] which comes from dietary fruits and vegetables. The new RDAs for Vitamin C (90 mg/day for men, 75 mg/day for women and >35 mg for smokers) will make this percentage even higher.

There is a large literature on supplementation studies with Vitamin C in humans using biomarkers of oxidative damage to DNA, lipids (lipid oxidation releases mutagenic aldehydes), and protein. Though there are positive and negative studies, if the fact that the blood cell saturation occurs at about 100 mg/day [54,55] is taken into consideration, then the evidence suggests that this level minimizes DNA damage [56–59].

Cataracts appear to be due to oxidation of lens protein, and antioxidants, such as Vitamin C and E and carotenoids, appear to protect against cataracts and macular degeneration of the eye in rodents and humans [60–62]. The use of Vitamin C supplements for 10 years or more reduced lens opacities by about 80% [63].

Spontaneous oxidative damage in the DNA of an old rat is about 66,000 adducts per diploid cell [64,65], and unlike uracil misincorporation, is likely to be equally frequent on both strands. Glycosylase repair of oxidative adducts also results in transient single-strand breaks in DNA.

Therefore, increased oxidative damage from low Vitamin C intake, chronic inflammation, smoking, or radiation, together with elevated levels of uracil in DNA, would be expected to lead to more double-strand (chromosome) breaks in individuals who are deficient in both folate and antioxidants. There is some evidence for this synergy [66–68], which may be important because 10–15% of men in the US had serum ascorbate levels close to the scurvy threshold [5,69].

Some studies suggest that Vitamin C protects against cancer, which would be plausible based on the mechanistic data, though other studies show no effect, the variability of tissue saturation again is critical. A significant protective effect was observed for renal cancer in non-smokers, though not in smokers [70].

In a review of nutrition and pancreatic cancer, fruit and vegetable intake and Vitamin C were protective, though it is difficult to rule out that Vitamin C is a surrogate for some other compounds in fruits and vegetables [71].

Both experimental and epidemiological data suggest that Vitamin C protects against stomach cancer [72], a result that is plausible because of the role of oxidative damage from inflammation by Helicobacter pylori infection, which is the main risk factor for stomach cancer. The role of Vitamin C in inhibiting oral cancer has recently been reviewed [73].

Vitamin C improves endothelial dysfunction, an early stage of atherosclerosis, in heavy smokers [74]. Vitamin C supplementation was associated with a reduction in overall mortality and in cardiovascular disease in a follow up of the NHANES I study [75].

The effect of smoking on blood plasma antioxidant status was investigated by measuring ascorbic acid, a-tocopherol, g-tocopherol, b-carotene and lycopene and, subsequently, tested the effect of a 3-month dietary supplementation with a moderate dose vitamin cocktail [76]. Only ascorbic acid was significantly depleted by smoking per se (P < 0:01). Following the 3-month supplementation period, ascorbic acid was efficiently repleted in smokers (P < 0:001). Plasma a-tocopherol and the ratio of a- to g-tocopherol increased significantly in both supplemented groups (P <0:05).

(12 B.N. Ames / Mutation Research 475 (2001) 7–20)

The data suggests that previous reports of lower levels of plasma Vitamin E and carotenoids in smokers compared to non-smokers may primarily have been caused by differences in dietary habits between study groups. Plasma ascorbic acid is thus depleted by smoking and repleted by moderate supplementation.

Men with low consumption of antioxidants, or who smoke, oxidize the DNA of their sperm as well as their somatic DNA. When the level of dietary Vitamin C is insufficient to maintain seminal fluid Vitamin C, the oxidative lesions in sperm DNA are more than doubled [57,77]. Oxidative lesions in sperm DNA are higher in smokers than non-smokers [78].

Smoking is a severe oxidative stress, and the nitrogen oxides (NOx ) in cigarette smoke depletes antioxidants [76,79]. Thus, smokers must ingest much more Vitamin C than non-smokers to achieve the same level in

blood, but they rarely do. Inadequate Vitamin C levels are more common among the poor and smokers. Smokers also have more chromosomal abnormalities in their sperm than non-smokers [80].

Germ line mutations, and their associated cancer and genetic abnormalities, are predominately of paternal origin [81]. Smoking by fathers, therefore, may plausibly increase the risk of childhood cancer and birth defects, a thesis supported by epidemiological evidence [77,79].

The evidence on smoking fathers’ offspring having an increased rate of childhood cancer is becoming more persuasive [82–85]. A new epidemiological study from China makes the case stronger; acute lymphocytic leukemia, lymphoma, and brain cancer are each increased three- to four-fold in offspring of male smokers [82].

The studies on paternal smoking and childhood cancer did not examine the effect of diet. It seems likely, given the above evidence, that the cancer risk to offspring of male smokers would be higher when dietary antioxidant intake is low. Maternal use of multivitamins lowers the risk of childhood cancer in offspring [86].

In one study, the maternal use of vitamins throughout the pregnancy lowered the risk of brain tumors in the offspring by about half [87]. In a study of children with childhood cancer, serum levels of b-carotene, Vitamin E, and zinc were significantly lower than controls [88]. Thus, a multivitamin supplement (or a better diet) for both parents might markedly lower childhood cancer. In addition, several studies suggest an increased rate of birth defects in offspring of smoking fathers (reviewed in [77,79]).

Diets deficient in fruits and vegetables are commonly low in folate, antioxidants, (e.g. Vitamin C) and many other micronutrients, and it seems plausible that the higher cancer rates associated with consuming de- ficient diets are due, in good part, to increased DNA damage [8,18,89].

7. Vitamin E
Vitamin E, the major fat-soluble antioxidant, is consumed primarily from dietary vegetable oils and nuts. The RDA is 10 mg/day for men and 8 mg/day for women. About 20% of the population consumes less than half of the RDA [5]. Evidence is accumulating that the optimum intake may be higher, as discussed below.

Studies on Vitamin E supplementation have all been done with a-tocopherol, but g-tocopherol, the main form in the US diet, has a different function than a-tocopherol, and the two complement each other [90]. g-Tocopherol is a powerful nucleophile, and thus, traps electrophilic mutagens that reach the membrane.

In the soluble part of the cell, glutathione acts as both an antioxidant and a nucleophile. In the membrane, a-tocopherol is the antioxidant and g-tocopherol (or lycopene) can act as a nucleophile. An important electrophilic mutagen destroyed by g-tocopherol is NOx . g-Tocopherol reacts with NOx to form nitro-g-tocopherol, thus, protecting lipids, DNA, and protein [90–92]. g-Tocopherol is also an anti-inflammatory agent [93].

People taking Vitamin E supplements (200 IU/day) appear to lower their risk for colon cancer [94,95] and evidence suggests a marked protective effect of a supplement (50 IU/day) on prostate cancer [96,97]. Vitamin E appears to protect against brain dysfunction [98,99] and deficiency leads to various neuropathologies [100].

Vitamin E supplements (100–400 IU), also reduced the risk of coronary heart disease by about 40% [101–106] as well as mortality from all causes [103]. The role of oxidants and the protective role of antioxidants in heart disease have recently been reviewed [107,108]. Vitamin E is regenerated by Vitamin C.

In a study of a population with low levels of Vitamin C and E, (B.N. Ames / Mutation Research 475 (2001) 7–20 13) doses of Vitamin E from 70 to 560 IU lowered lipid peroxidation while a very high dose appeared to increase it [109] emphasizing that information on the toxic level, as well as the optimum level, of each micronutrient is desirable.

Both Vitamin E and selenium enhance the immune system in animals [110], and Vitamin E supplementation (200–400 units/day) enhances human immunity [111]. Vitamin E [112] or Vitamin C [113] reduced oxidative stress and malformations in offspring of diabetic rats.

8. Selenium
Selenium is important in enzymatic defenses against oxidants, and deficiency would be expected to lead to oxidative DNA damage [114]. An RDA of 70 mg/day of selenium and an upper limit of 350mg/day has been proposed [115]. The average intake in the US is about 100mg/day, though different areas of the country have different selenium levels in the soil, and the bioavailability depends on the selenium form in foods [114].

A growing body of evidence suggests that selenium plays an important role in the prevention of cancer in a variety of organs and species [116,117]. Prostate cancer incidence was reduced by two/thirds in the selenium supplemented group (200 mg/day) compared to the placebo group in a randomized, double-blind, cancer prevention trial; total cancer mortality, lung and colorectal cancer were also significantly reduced [118,119].

In a cohort study [120], men in the highest selenium quintile of intake had only 1/2 the odds ratio of prostate cancer as men in the lowest quintile. In a nested, case-control prospective study on ovarian cancer, serum selenium was associated with decreased risk [121].

In a study of post-menopausal breast cancer patients, a strong inverse relationship was observed between triiodothyronine (T3) levels and cancer (OR D 0:17; CI (95%/ D 0:08–0.36) between the highest and lowest tertiles [122]. Toenail selenium was positively associated with T3 levels in both cases and controls; the selenoenzyme iodothyronine deiodinase synthesizes T3. Prostate and breast cancer cells were about 25 times more sensitive than normal cells to selenomethionine, a major form of selenium in cells [123].

In a study of selenium intake and colorectal cancer that adjusted for possible confounders, the individuals in the lowest quartile of plasma selenium had four times the risk of colorectal adenomas compared to those in the highest quartile [124]. Selenium and glutathione peroxidase levels were found to be lowered in patients with uterine cervical carcinoma [125].

In a Chinese study, cervical cancer mortality was inversely associated with several factors, including serum selenium levels [126]. Selenoprotein-P level was inversely associated with several types of cancer [127]. Selenium deficiency causes human cells in culture to be more sensitive to two mutagens causing single strand breaks in DNA [128].

Several hypotheses have been proposed to explain the protection against carcinogenesis by supplemental selenium [114]. One of these is its protection against oxidative damage involving selenium as an essential component of the antioxidant enzyme glutathione peroxidase [129], or selenoprotein-P [130–132].

A recent review discusses the 11 selenoproteins and selenium’s role in preventing disease [133]. Excess selenium intake appears to cause oxidative damage and cancer in rodents [134]. The case for selenium supplementation is becoming stronger, though the toxicity of high selenium levels must be taken into account.

9. Niacin
The main dietary sources of niacin include meat and beans. About 2.3% of the US population consumes less than half the RDA of niacin [5]. Tryptophan from protein can also provide niacin equivalents [135]. About 15% of some populations have been reported to be severely deficient [136]. Niacin contributes to the repair of DNA-breaks by maintaining nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide levels for the poly-ADP ribose protective response to DNA damage [137–139]; deficiency compromises repair of DNA nicks and breaks, and thus, is expected to act synergistically with folate and antioxidant deficiencies in causing DNA damage and cancer [140].

10. Iron
A major dietary source of iron is meat. The United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization has estimated that the world has about two billion people 14 B.N. Ames / Mutation Research 475 (2001) 7–20 at risk for iron deficiency, mainly women and children. In the US, about 19% of women, aged 12–50, and about 7% of the population, ingest below 50% of the RDA [5]; about nine million people have been estimated to be clinically deficient [141].

Iron deficiency, or iron excess, leads to oxidative DNA damage [142,143]. Iron deficiency in children is associated with cognitive dysfunction [144,145]. Low iron intake results in anemia, immune dysfunction, and adverse pregnancy outcomes such as prematurity [145]. Excess iron appears to also lead to oxidative DNA damage in rats that is reversed by Vitamin E [146]. Increased risk of human cancer [145,147] and possibly heart disease [148–150] is associated with excess iron.

11. Zinc
Major sources of zinc are meat, eggs, nuts, and whole grains. Zinc deficiency causes a variety of health effects which have been reviewed in depth [151]. About 18% of the US population consumes less than half the RDA for zinc (12 mg women, 15 mg men) [5]. Mean daily intakes reported for poor children (5 mg), middle income children (6.3 mg) and vegetarians (6.4 mg) in the US appear insufficient [151].

Zinc is a component of over 300 proteins, over 100 DNA-binding proteins with zinc fingers, Cu/Zn superoxide dismutase, the estrogen receptor, and synaptic transmission protein [151]. Functioning of p53, a zinc protein which is mutated in half of human tumors, is disrupted on loss of zinc [152]. Mutation is being prevented by p53, which inhibits cell division and induces apoptosis in response to DNA lesions [153].

Chromosome breaks in rats have been reported with a zinc deficient diet [154]. The offspring of zinc deficient rhesus monkeys also have increased chromosome breaks [155]. The chromosome breaks might be due to increased oxidative damage [155,156], perhaps due to loss of activity of Cu/Zn superoxide dismutase or the zinc-containing DNA-repair enzyme, Fapy glycosylase, which repairs oxidized guanine [157].

Zinc deficiency has been suggested as a contributor to esophageal cancer in humans, and has been shown to cause esophageal tumors in rats in conjunction with a single low dose of a nitrosamine [158–160]. Severe zinc deficiency by itself can cause esophageal tumors in rats [160].

Zinc is known to be an essential trace element for testicular development and spermatogenesis [161]. Zinc concentrations in seminal plasma are hundreds of times greater than that in blood plasma, which suggests a specific function for this trace element in spermatogenesis and stability of spermatozoa [151].

Zinc concentrations are correlated positively with sperm cell density, and lower zinc concentrations are found in infertile men compared with fertile men [162]. Zinc deficiency leads to increased oxidative damage to testicular cell DNA (as measured by oxo8dG) and increased protein carbonyl content [163].

A considerable literature in experimental animals and humans suggests that zinc deficiency slows growth and development of the neonate. Severe deficiency in animals is teratogenic [155].

In a pair-matched, double-blind, study in Chile of preschool boys of low socio-economic status, those supplemented with 10 mg zinc/day grew significantly more rapidly than the placebo group [164]. This is consistent with earlier reports in the US and other countries on growth stimulation of poor children supplemented with zinc [151].

Zinc deficiency leads to alterations in brain development and growth [144]. Zinc deficiency in pregnant rats, at a level that does not impair the pregnancy or the growth of the pups, impairs cognitive function in adult offspring [151]. Zinc deficiency in adult rats impairs hippocampal and behavioral functions [151].

Several studies on monkeys show that maternal zinc deficiency leads to learning and behavioral disabilities in offspring [151]. Six studies in humans suggest that zinc deficiency leads to cognitive defects [151]. Several animal and human studies indicate that mild zinc deficiency impairs the immune system [151,165].

The incidence of respiratory infections in a group of institutionalized elderly was decreased by over two-fold (P _ 0:01) when they were given a supplement of zinc (20 mg) plus selenium (100 mg) in a double-blind placebo study; in other studies very high doses of zinc (100–150 mg/day) had an adverse effect on the immune system [166].

12. Conclusion
Optimizing micronutrient intake (through better diets, fortification of foods, or multivitamin-mineral pills [167]) can have a major impact on public health at low cost. (B.N. Ames / Mutation Research 475 (2001) 7–20 15) Other micronutrients are likely to be added to the list of those whose deficiency causes DNA damage in the coming years. Tuning-up human metabolism, which varies with genetic constitution and changes with age, is likely to be a major way to minimize DNA damage, improve health and prolong healthy lifespan.

Acknowledgements
This work was supported by National Foundation for Cancer Research Grant M2661, National Institutes of Health Grant AG17140, US. Department of Energy Grant DE-FG03-00ER62943, Tobacco-Related Disease Research Program Grant 7RT-0178, Wheeler Fund for the Biological Sciences at the University of California Berkeley, the Ellison Medical Foundation Grant SS-042-99 and National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences Center Grant ESO1896.

 

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This paper was adapted, in part, from the work by B.N. Ames [168] and [169].
Present address: Children’s Hosp ORI, 5700 M.L.K. Way Jr., Oakland, CA 94609, USA. Tel.: C1-510-450-7625; fax: C1-510-597-7128.
E-mail address: bnames(at)uclink4.berkeley.edu (B.N. Ames).
0027-5107/01/ – see front matter © 2001 Elsevier Science B.V. PII: S0027-5107(01)00070-7 8 B.N. Ames / Mutation Research 475 (2001) 7–20 © 2001 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

Nutrient Research References

A collection of good nutrient references from before 1999.

Links to the different categories:

Vitamin A, Betacarotene, Research references

January 1999

1. Band P.R. et al. Treatment of Benign Breast Disease with Vitamin A. Prev Med 549-54, 1984.
2. Bendich A. Symposium conclusions: Biological actions of carotenoids. J Nutr 119: 112-5, 1989.
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4. Branowitz SA, Starrett B, Brookner AR. Carotene deficiency in HIV patients. AIDS 10; (1):115, 1996.
5. Burton GW, Ingold KU. Beta-carotene. An unusual type of lipid antioxidant. Scicnce 224: 569-573, 1984.
6. Cheraskin E, Ringsdorf WM, Medford FH. The ‘ideal’ daily vitamin A intake. Int J Vit Nutr Res 46: 11-13, 1976.
7. Chole Q. Vitamin A in the cochlea. Arch Otorhinolaryngol 124:379-82, 1978.
8. Comstock GW et al. Serum concentrations of alpha-tocopherol, beta-carotene, and retinol preceding the diagnosis of rheumatoid arthritis and systemic lupus erythematosus. Ann Rheum Dis 56: 323-5, 1997.
9. Connett JE, Kuller KH, Kjelsberg MO et al. Relationship between carotenoids and cancer. Cancer 64: 126-134, 1989.
10. Coutsoudis A, Bobat R, Coovadia H. The effects of vitamin-A supplementation on the morbidity of children born to HIV-infected women. Am J Public Health 85; (8):1076-81, 1995.
11. Delmas-Beauvieux M-C, Peuchant E, Couchouron A, et al. The enzymatic antioxidant system in blood and glutathione status in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-infected patients: Effects of supplementation with selenium or carotene. Am J Clin Nutr 64: 101-7, 1996.
12. DiMascio P, Murphy ME, Sies H. Antioxidant defense systems the role of carotenoids, tocopherols and thiols. Am J Clin Nutr 53: 194S-200S, 1991.
13. Eldred GE. Vitamins A and E in RPE lipofuscin formation and implications for age-related macular degeneration. Prog Clin Biol Res 314: 113-29, 1989.
14. Ferreira R et al. Antioxidant action of vitamins A and E in patients submitted to coronary bypass surgery. Vasc Surg 25: 191-195, 1991.
15. Gaby SK, Singh VN. Vitamin intake and health: A scientific review. New York: Marcel Dekker. p 29-57, 1991.
16. Gershoff SN, McGandy RB. The effects of vitamin A-deficient diets containing lactose in producing bladder calculi and tumors in rats. Am J Clin Nutr 34: 483, 1981.
17. Goodman DS. Vitamin A and retinoids in heath and disease. N Eng J Med 310: 1023-1031, 1984.
18. Hayes KC. Retinal degeneration in monkeys induced by deficiencies of vitamin E or A. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 13:7:499-510, 1974.
19. Honkanen V et al. Vitamins A and E, retinol binding protein and zinc in rheumatoid arthritis. Clin Exp Rheumatol 7: 465-9, 1989.
20. Honkanen VEA et al. Serum cholesterol and vitamins A and E in juvenile chronic arthritis. Clin Exp Rheumatol 8: 187-91, 1990.
21. Liao CH, Erdman JW, Johnston PV. Dietary vitamin A deficiency and the immune system in a murine model of systemic lupus erythematosus. Nutr Res 16: 279-92, 1996.
22. Lohle E. The influence of chronic vitamin A deficiency on human and animal ears. Arch Otorhinolaryngol 234:167-73, 1982.
23. Mckeown LA. Beta carotene lifts CD4 counts. Study reported in Medical Tribune Feb. 25, p. 1. 1993.
24. Mobarhan S, Bowen P, Andersen B et al. Effects of beta-carotene repletion on beta-carotene absorption, lipid peroxidation, and neutrophil superoxide formation in young men. Nutr Cancer 14: 195-206, 1990.
25. Newbold PCH. Beta-carotene in the treatment of discoid lupus erythematosus. Br J Dermatol 95: 100-1, 1976.
26. Olson JA. Vitamin A. In: Present knowledge in nutrition. 7th edn. Washington DC: Intemational Life Sciences Press. p 109-119, 1996.
27. Oson JA. Provitamin A function of carotenoids. Thc conversion of B-carotene to Vitamin A. J Nutr 119: 105-108, 1989.
28. Paganini-Hill A, Chao A, Ross RK et al. Vitamin A, beta carotene and the risk of cancer. A prospective study. J Natl Cancer Inst 79: 443-448, 1987.
29. Palgi A. Association between dietary changes and morality rates; Israel 1949 to 1977; a trend-free regression model. Am J Clin Nutr 34: 1569-1583, 1981.
30. Prince MR, Frisoli JK. Beta-carotene accumulation in serum and skin. Am J Clin Nutr 1993; 57: 175-181, 1993.
31. Pryor WA. The antioxidant nutrients and disease prevention what do we know and what do we need to find out? Am J Clin Nutr 53: 391S-393S, 1991.
32. Riemersma RA, Wood DA, MacIntyre CCH, et al. Risk of angina pectoris and plasma concentrations of vitamins A, C and E and carotene. Lancet 337:1-5, 1991.
33. Romeo G. The therapeutic effect of vitamins A and E in neurosensory hearing loss. Acta Vitaminol Enzymol 7 Suppl:85-92, 1985.
34. Sahyoun NR et al. Carotenoids, vitamins C and E, and mortality in an elderly population. Am J Epidemiol 144:5:501-11, 1996.
35. Sappey C et al. Vitamin, Trace element and Peroxide status in HIV seropositive patients: Asymptomatic patients present a severe Carotene Deficiency. Clin Clim Acta 230:35-42, 1994.
36. Semba R, Graham N, Caiaffa W, et al. Increased Mortality associated with Vitamin A Deficiency during Human Immunodeficiency Virus type 1 infection. Arch Intern Med 153:2149-54, 1993.
37. Semba RD, Park S, Royal W, Griffin DE. Vitamin A deficiency and T-cell subpopulation in HIV-infected adults. Nutr Res 16:915-23, 1996.
38. Sommer A., West, KP. The duration of the effect of vitamin A supplementation. Am J Public Health 1997; 87: 467, 1997.
39. Salonen JT. Risk of cancer in relation to serum concentrations of selenium and vitamins A and E: matched case-control analysis of prospective data. Br Mcd J 1985, 290: 417-420, 1985.
40. Schauss AG. Beta-carotene and the incidence of lung cancer in Finnish male smokers. A critique. Q Rev Natural Med 191-195, 1994.
41. Seddon JM, Ajani UA, Sperduto RD, et al. Dietary carotenoids, vitamins A, C, and E, and advanced age-related macular degeneration. JAMA 272:1413-20, 1994.
42. Stahelin HB, Gey KB, Eichholzer M et al. Beta-carotene and cancer prevention. The Basel Study. Am J Clin Nutr 53: 265S-269S, 1991.
43. Street DA et al. Serum antioxidants and myocardial infarction: Are low levels of carotenoids and alpha-tocopherol risk factors for myocardial infarction? Circulation 90;3:1154-61, 1994.
44. Tang AM et al. Association between Serum Vitamin A and E levels and HIV-1 disease progression. AIDS 11:613-20, 1997.
45. Underwood BA. Was the ‘anti-infective’ vitamin misnamed? Nutr Rev 52: 140-143, 1994.
46. Vitale S et al. Plasma vitamin C, E and beta carotene levels and risk of cataract. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 32:723, 1991.
47. Weisburger J. Nutritional approach to cancer prevention with emphasis on vitamins, antioxidants, and carotenoids. Am J Clin Nutr 53: S226-237, 1991.
48. Weisberger JH. Nutritional approach to cancer prevention with emphasis on vitamins, antioxidants, and carotenoids. Am J Clin Nutr 1995; 53: 226s.
49. Werler MA, Lammer EJ, Mitchell AA. Teratogenicity of high vitamin A intake. Letter. N Eng J Med 334: 1195, 1995.
50. White WS, Kim Cl, Kalkwarf HJ et al. Ultraviolet light-induced reduction in plasma carotenoid levels. Am J Clin Nutr 47: 879-883, 1988.
51. Willette W. Nutritional epidemiology. New York: Oxford University Press. p 292-310, 1990.
52. Ziegler RG. Vegetables, fruits and carotenoids and the risk of cancer. Am J Clin Nutr 53: 251S-259S, 1991.

Sources
Joseph E. Pizzorno Jr., Michael T. Murrey & Melvyn R. Werbach.

Vitamin B1, Research references

January 1999

1. Allison JR. The relation of hydrochloric acid and vitamin B complex deficiency in certain skin diseases. South Med J 38: 235-241, 1945.
2. Bendich A, Cohen M. Nutrition and Immunology. New York: Alan R. Liss. p 101-123, 1988.
3. Butterworth RF et al. Thiamin deficiency in AIDS. Lancet 338:1086, 1991.
4. Cheraskin E, Ringsdorf WM Jr, Setyaadmadja AT et al. Thiamin consumption and cardiovascular complaints. J Am Geriatrics Soc 15: 1074-1079, 1967.
5. Cheraskin E, Ringsdorf WM Jr, Setyaadmadja AT et al. Carbohydrate consumption and cardiovascular complaints. Angiology 18: 224-230, 1967.
6. Cheraskin E, Ringsdorf WM Jr, Medford FH et al. The ‘ideal’ daily vitamin B, intake. J Oral Med 33: 77-79, 1978.
7. Cheraskin E, Ringsdorf WM Jr. How much refined carbohydrate should we eat? Am Lab 6: 31-35, 1974.
8. Cummings F, Briggs M, Briggs, M. Vitamins in human biology and medicine. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. 1981.
9. Iber FL, Blass JP, Brin M et al. Thiamin in the elderly-relation to alcoholism and to neurological degenerative disease. Am J Clin Nutr 6: 1067-1082, 1982.
10. Lonsdale DA. Nutritionist’s guide to the clinical use of vitamin B1. Tacoma, WA: Life Sciences Press. p 1-209, 1987.
11. Lonsdale D. Red cell transketolase studies in a private practice specializing in nutritional correction. J Am Coll Nutr 7: 61-68, 1988.
12. Rindi, G. Thiamin. In: Present knowledge in nutrition. 7th edn. Washington DC: International Life Sciences Press. p 160-166, 1996.
13. Ropert R. Utilisation de la Vitamine B1 fortes doses dans le traitement de divers syndromes douloureux facio-céphaliques. Sem Hôp 4:508-9, 1958 (in French).
14. Shils ME, Young VR. Modern nutrition in health and disease. 7th edn. Philadelphia: Lea and Febiger. p 358, 1988.

 

Sources
Joseph E. Pizzorno Jr., Michael T. Murrey & Melvyn R. Werbach.

Vitamin B2, research references

January 1999

1. Belko AZ, Obarzanek E, Kalkwarf HJ et al. Effects of exercise on riboflavin requirements of young women. Am J Clin Nutr 37: 509-517, 1983.
2. Belko AZ, Obazanek E, Roach R et al. Effects of aerobic exercise and weight loss on riboflavin requirements of moderately obese, marginally deficient young women. Am J Clin Nutr 40: 553-561, 1984.
3. Belko AZ, Meredith MP, Kalkwarf HJ et al. Effects of exercise on riboflavin requirements. Biological validation in weight reducing women. Am J Clin Nutr 41: 270-277, 1985.
4. Bendich A, Cohen M. Nutrition and Immunology. New York: Alan R. Liss. p. 114, 1988.
5. Beutler E. Glutathione reductase. Stimulation in normal subjects by riboflavin supplementation. Science 165: 614-615, 1969.
6. Goodwin JS, Garry PJ. Relationship between megadose vitamin supplementation and immunological function in a healthy elderly population. Clin Exp Immunol 51: 647-653, 1983.
7. Joint, FAO/WHO Expert Group. Riboflavin. WHO Technical Report Series No. 362. p. 86, 1967.
8. Prchal JT, Conrad ME, Skalka HW. Association of presenile cataracts with heterozygosity for glactosaemic states and riboflavin deficiency. Lancet i: 12-143, 1978.
9. Rivlin RS. Riboflavin. In: Ziegler EE, Filer LJ Jr, eds. Present knowledge in nutrition. 7th edn. Washington DC: International Life Sciences Press. p 167-173, 1996.
10. Salim-Hanna M, Edwards AM, Silva E. A photo-induced adduct between a vitamin and an essential amino acid: binding of riboflavin to tryptophan. Int J Vit Nutr Res 57: 155-159, 1987.
11. Schoenen J, Jacquay J, Lenaerts M. Effectiveness of high-dose riboflavin in migraine prophylaxis: a randomized controlled trial. Neurology 50: 466-470, 1998.
12. Schoenen J, Lenaerts M, Bastings E. High-dosc riboflavin as a prophylactic treatment of migraine: results of an open pilot study. Cephalalgia 14: 328-329, 1994.
13. Skalka HW, Prchal JT. Cataracts and riboflavin deficiency. Am J Clin Nutr 34: 861-863, 1981.
14. Webster RP, Gawde MD, Bhattacharya RK. Modulation of carcinogen-induced DNA damage and repair enzyme activity by dietary riboflavin. Cancer Lett 98: 129-135, 1996.
15. Weisburger J. Nutritional approach to cancer prevention with emphasis on vitamins, antioxidants, and cartenoids. Am J Clin Nutr 53: S226-227, 1991.

 

Sources
Joseph E. Pizzorno Jr., Michael T. Murrey & Melvyn R. Werbach.

Vitamin B3, Research references

January 1999

1. Alhadeff L, Gualtieri GT, Lipton M. Toxic effects of water-soluble vitamins. Nutr Rev 42: 33-40, 1984.
2. Bendich A, Cohen M. Nutrition and immunology. New York: Alan R. Liss. p 114-115, 1988.
3. Carlson LA, Hamsten A, and Asplund A. Pronounced Lowering of Serum Levels of Lipoprotein Lp(a) in Hyperlipidaemic Subjects Treated with Nicotinic Acid, J Intern Med 226, 271-6, 1989.
4. Cheraskin E, Ringsdorf WM Jr, Medford FH. The ‘ideal’ daily niacin intake. Int J Vit Nutr Res 46: 58-60, 1976.
5. Cleary JP. Vitamin B3 in the Treatment of Diabetes Mellitus: Case Reports and Review of the Literature. J Nutr Med 1: 217-25, 1990.
6. DiPalma JR and Thayer WS, Use of Niacin as a Drug, Ann Rev Nutr 11; 169-87, 1991.
7. Einstein N, Baker A, Galper J et al. Jaundice due to nicotinic acid therapy. Am J Digest Dis 20: 282-286, 1975.
8. El-Enein AMA et al., The Role of Nicotinic Acid and Inositol Hexaniacinate as Anticholesterolemic and Antilipemic Agents, Nutr Rep Intl 28, 899-911, 1983.
9. Figge HL, Figge J, Souney PF et al. Nicotinic acid. A review of its clinical use in the treatment of lipid disorders. Pharmacotherapy 8: 287-294, 1988.
10. Gaby SK. Vitamin intake and health: A scientific review. New York: Marcel Dekker. p 189-192, 1991.
11. Goldsmith GA, Miller ON, Unglaub WG. Efficiency of tryptophan as a niacin precursor in man. J Nutr 73: 172-176, 1961.
12. Grundy SM. Drug therapy in dyslipidemia. Scand J Clin Lab Invest 50: 63-72, 1990.
13. Illingworth DR et al., Comparative Effects of Lovastatin and Niacin in Primary Hypercholesterolemia, Arch Intern Med 154, 1586-95, 1994.
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Sources
Joseph E. Pizzorno Jr., Michael T. Murrey & Melvyn R. Werbach.

Vitamin B5, Research references

January 1999

1. Barton-Wright EC, Elliott WA. The Pantothenic Acid Metabolism of Rheumatoid Arthritis. Lancet ii: 862-3, 1963.
2. Fry PC et al. Metabolic response to a pantothenic acid deficient diet in humans. J Nutr Sci Vitaminol 22: 339-46, 1976.
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Sources

Joseph E. Pizzorno Jr., Michael T. Murrey & Melvyn R. Werbach.

Vitamin B6, Research references

January 1999

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54. Shultz TD, Santamaria AG, Gridley DS et al. Effect of pyridoxine and pyridoxal on the in vitro growth of human malignant melanoma. Nutr Res 8: 201-207, 1988.
55. Solomon LR et al. Erythrocyte O2 Transport and Metabolism and Effects of Vitamin B6 Therapy in Type II Diabetes mellitus. Diabetes 38: 881-86, 1989.
56. Stone S. Pyridoxine and thiamine therapy in disorders of the nervous system. Dis Nerv Sys 11;5:131-8, 1950.
57. Subbarao K et al. Pyridoxal 5’-phosphate – a new physiological inhibitor of blood coagulation and platelet function. Biochem Pharmacol 28:531-4, 1979.
58. Swift ME, Shultz TD. Relationship of vitamins B6 and Bl2 to homocysteine levels: Risk for coronary heart disease. Nutr Rep Int 34: 1-14, 1986.
59. Talbott MC, Miller LT, Kerkvliet NI. Pyridoxine supplementation effect on Lymphocyte responses in elderly persons. Am J Clin Nutr 46: 659-664, 1987.
60. Thind SK et al. Role of vitamin B6 in oxalate metabolism in urolithiasis. Abstract. Am J Clin Nutr 32; 6:20, 1979.
61. Ubbink JB, Vermaak WJH, van der Merwe A, Becker PJ. Vitamin B-12, vitamin B-6, and folate nutritional status in men with hyperhomocysteinemia. Am J Clin Nutr 57:47-53, 1993.
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65. Vijayammal PL, Kurup PA. Pyridoxine and atherosclerosis: Role of pyridoxine in the metabolism of lipids and glycosaminoglycans in rats fed normal and high fat, high cholesterol diets containing 16% casein. Austral J Biol Sci 31:1:7-20, 1978.
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Joseph E. Pizzorno Jr., Michael T. Murrey & Melvyn R. Werbach.